3. Principles of Modern Forestry

3.1 Legal Objectives and Management Strategies

Forests in Germany enjoy special legal protection. The outlines of its modern forest policy were
formulated 1975 in the Federal Forest Act (Law on the Conservation of Forests and the Promotion of
Forestry) which was the basis for all other subordinate State Forest Acts in Germany.
In section 1 the Federal Forest Act clearly lays down the rules for preserving the forests:
"It is the object of this Act in particular:

1. to conserve forests for their economic value (economic function) and their environmental
significance - the latter having a bearing especially on the longterm productive efficency of the
ecosystem, on the climate, on water resources, on the filtration of the atmosphere, on soil fertility, on
scenic aspects, on agri- and infrastructure as well as on recreation for the general public (protective
and recreational function); where required forests are to be expanded; their proper management is to
be ensured in a sustained manner;

2. to advance the forestry sector and

3. to strike a balance between the interests of society and the vested interests of forest owners."


Several other laws are concearning the forest management, the most important are:

Law for the protection of wild plants, a law which controls the seed provenance, Nature
Conservation Law, Land Planning Law, Agriculture Law, the Hunting Law and the Environmental
Impact Assessment Law which lays down the procedure for clear cuts, for example in case of an authorized conversion of forest land.
In 1984 the protection of the forests was even added to the Bavarian Constitution in Article 141, para. 1:

"The primary duties of the State, communities and public corporations also include . . . to protect our
forests because of their significance to the natural environment and to overcome or compensate as far
as possible for damage already done ... ."


The management strategies depend on the objectives of the land owner. In general the private forest
owner tend to manage their forests economically. Recreational and ecological aspects often have
secondary importance. By means of subsidies the government tries to control sylvilcultural
management.

The forest management in State forests and many corpoarate forests is focused on an optimal
combination of all relevant forest functions.

3.2 Forestry Based on Natural Conditions

A forest can only fulfil its diverse functions if it is correctly managed. The core of forest management
is the regeneration of forests adapted to their site and tending of the forests.
Establishment of Site Adapted Forests (Regeneration)

Regeneration provides the foundation for the future forests of our great-grandchildren. Whether a
forest will survive during the next 100 to 250 years in good health and undamaged depends above all
on the choice of correct tree species. To make decisions easier, site mapping has been carried out
over the entire State forest. For the private and corporate forest site mapping has been started in
recent years with state assistance. Thus the respective growing conditions, especially water and
nutrient balance of soils are determined and the specific silvicultural treatment is described.
Where possible old stands are naturally regenerated. Sylvicultural treatments are geared to entrance
seed production of the trees and germination of fallen seed, so that the next forest generation can
develop under the protection of the old stands. The natural regeneration of the forests demands great
silvicultural skill and patience.



The preconditions for success are:

* old trees which bear enough seed
* a favourable seedbed which enables the seeds to germinate
* enough light for the growth of the young trees
* and a low game density which is adapted to the natural carrying capacity.


Areas which are unsuitable for natural reforestation or on which the desired regeneration does not
develop, have to be replanted with young trees grown in the forest nurseries. The percentage of
natural regeneration has continously increased in recent years.




Tending the Forest
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Tending the forests is essential for the growth of a stable, healthy and efficient forest which can
withstand the dangers of snow, storms and insects with maximal resistance and in which valuable
timber can grow.
Strong trees with long crowns are more stable and more resistant to stress than weak, short-crowned
trees. Therefore it is important to tend the stand early and frequently. Primarily mixed species forests
are promoted. Healthy and well-shaped trees obtain the necessary growth by removal of their
competing neighbours.

The publicity frequently judges sylicultural achievements by its visual appearance or its aesthetical
value. Sylvicultural management based on natural conditions results in natural structures and lines
which will be visually percepted as harmony and beauty.

Nowadays the perception of nature is well developed and in order to convince the publicity of the
necessity of forests we have to design attractive scenic woodlands, which fit to the ground and the
environment.



3.3 Multi Functional Forest Management

The forest can only fulfil its many functions if it is correctly managed. Originally sustained yield
referred only to timber exploitation. But today this principle also includes the protective and
recreational functions of forests.
German forests are a resource for high class timber, pulp and paper as well as for fuelwood. They
protect people and our environment and they are a resource for silence and recreation.

During the past centuries forests were playing an important role for mankind. Originally woods were
the habitat of men, they got their nutrition, fodder for their pets, fuelwood and building material from
it. Consequently forests were always fulfilling many functions for the same time and on the same site.
Nowadays the needs and requirements concerning the forests have changed. The provision with
wood is still an important economic aspect, but in a densily crowded country like Germany the
protection of natural resources by the forests and the recreation in forested areas have become more
and more important for the society.


Production Function
--------------------

Production Function includes the economic aspects of forests. These are:

* Provision of wood which is a renewable, and carbon fixing raw material.
* Forests are the basis of raw material for local timber and pulp and paper industries.
* Forests are an income resource for many private land owners
* Forests are a place of work for many people in rural areas.


Protection Function
--------------------

Additionally German Forests fulfil several other functions for humans and their environment:

* Regulation and regeneration of fresh water resources.
* Protection of fertile soils and steep sites from erosion.
* Protection from snow avalanches and rock debris.
* Balancy effect on our climate.
* Filtration and purification of polluted air.
* Reduction of the green house effect by long-term fixing of CO2 by wood.
* Protection from noise.
* Protection of biotops and species.
* Positive impact on natural scenery.


Recreation Function
---------------------

Forests are a silent place for recreation and an attractive area for outdoor activities.
By law all German forests are accessible for everyone. Only in areas with a high ecological value
there might be restrictions of this common right.


Forests are part of Germany's culture
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Furthermore our forests are a cultural possession . They are often associated with the term
"Heimat" (home). Woods and trees play an important role in old fairy tales, literature, poetry, music
and art. The words "Wald" (wood) and "Baum" (tree) can be found in many recent proverbs and they
are alive in many village or family names.



3.4 Design Guidelines for Wooded Landscapes

In Germany there are no official mandatory guidelines for amenity design. According to relevant
German laws (i.e. Federal Forest Law, Federal Nature Conservation Law, Official Forest
Management Plan) all official foresters and those people who are involved in landscape planing
should regard all ecological and aesthetical requirements of landscape tending.
To meet these requirements there are a lot of recommendations and advices for natural forest
management and amenity design.
These non-mandatory guidelines are dealing with the design of single trees and bushes, groups of
trees or hedges, alleys and rows of trees, forest mantles, the forest interior, natural open lands in the
forests and natural and cultural monuments.
The guidelines persue three major objectives:


a.) Design of the interior of forests:

the creation, management and conservation of natural woodlands, which are suited to site and climate
and which fulfil all necessary functions for society (i.e. social, ecological and economical).

Summary of common sylvicultural systems (regeneration methods) in Germany:
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1: Clear cut ("Kahlschlag")
Primarily for unstable spruce stands which don­t fit to site and climate. According to the forest law of
Baden-Wuerttemberg (Southwest-Germany) it is prohibited to clearcut more than 4 hectares; for
clearcut over 2 hectars an environmental impact assessment is mandatory.

2: Seed tree method by compartment ("Schirmschlag")
Most important method for regeneration of beech (fagus sylvatica) and oak stands (quercus robur,
quercus petrea). Selective cutting opens the stand by interrupting the leaf canopy.

3: Strip selection cutting ("Saumschlag")
Primarily for mixed spruce stands. This method favours the intolerant trees (light demander like
spruce (picea abies) and scotch pine (pinus sylvestris)).

4: Group selection cutting ("Femelschlag")
Creates optimal light conditions for shade trees and intolerant trees in mixed stands.

5: Regeneration under selection system ("Plenterung")
Traditional forest management for private owned forests in South-Germany and Switzerland (s.c
"Plenterwald"). Favours shade trees in mixed fir/beech/spruce-stands (abies alba/ fagus sylvatica/
picea abies).

All of these 5 examples demonstrate a different visual impact on the environment and show the strong
influence of sylvicultural systems on amenity design.


b.) Design of exposed sites and adjacent natural objects:

The design and creation of exposed sites like forest mantles, visible rocks or natural monuments like
old single trees.
Types of forest mantles:

Steep edge of beech and spruce stands in geometrical forms spoil the scenery, have less habitat
quality and endanger the stand stability.
Optimally designed forest mantles consist of different tree species, zones of bushes and herbaceous
vegetation. Width 25 to 45 metres. The structure of the mantle grants stable stands and good habitat
conditions. Unfortunately those design concepts often faile due to economic intrests of the land
owners.


C.) Design of exterior areas:

Afforestation of open land and management of marginal soils.
According to the relevant forest percentage, the scenery, climatical and ecological conditions,
afforestation applications are approved respectively turned down, or additional afforestations are
recommended.
The objective is an approval of afforestation applications on sites which don­t reduce the natural
capacity of the environment.